The Roman Empire spanned three continents. To its east was the Sassanid Empire of Iran. This empire extended up to today's Baluchistan. These two were the superpowers of their time
Both the powers were in a constant state of war to destroy each other .The Arab tribes could live only as tributaries to either of them. Either they would become a vassal state of the Romans or the Iranians. But in 633 CE, an Arab commander, Khalid ibn al-Walid challenged these empires. Bloody wars were fought against both the empires.
Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated larger armies and experienced generals .What was the strategy behind these victories.
What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Romans and Persians? Why did the Arab commander fight them?
This is our new series the "Great Generals and Battles of History. "Do you know which was the greatest ancient empire?
It was the Roman Empire.
The Empire reached its zenith in the 2nd century CE. It was stretched from Great Britain in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east. However, It declined in the following centuries and lost most of its territories.117 CE was its peak time. But in 628 CE, it shrank to less than half of its original size. Its western empire was in Italy and Rome remained its capital for a long time.
But now that western empire was lost.
Only the Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire was left in the East. Its capital was Constantinople. We will call this Byzantine Empire the Eastern Roman Empire .Constantinople was situated where the Turkish city of Istanbul stands today .Apparently this Roman Empire covered 3 continents namely Europe, Africa and Asia. However, in reality its peak time was gone and it was on the decline. It had lost most of its European territory to various warrior tribes.
Only some parts of Italy and Greece were left under its control. Especially the Avar and Slavic tribes were so powerful. They had even advanced up to Constantinople from the European side. Constantinople was saved only by its impregnable walls. These walls would blunt every attack by these warrior tribes.
However the tribes would continue to attack and retreat only when they were paid by the Romans. The Romans continued to bribe them to maintain peace. The Roman Empire had survived through bribery and strong walls .On the eastern frontier, the Roman Empire faced the Iranian threat.
Historians call it the Iranian Empire, the Persian or the Sassanid Empire. We will call it Iranian Empire to avoid any confusion.
Iranian Empire's eastern borders were extended to Afghanistan and Baluchistan. While it controlled Iraq and Azerbaijan in the west. Its capital was Ctesiphon (Arabic: al-Mada'in).Al-Mada'in meant ''the cities."
Ctesifon's population was more than many cities of that era. That's why it was called al-Mada'in. Its ruins still exist 35 kilometers southeast of present-day Baghdad. So this Iranian empire became a constant threat to Rome. The two empires fought intermittently for centuries. In particular, they fought in the Caucasus region. This area included Georgia, Armenia and today's Azerbaijan. This area was a permanent battle ground and changed hands frequently. Apart from this, sometimes these wars also spread to Syria and Egypt.
But every war had the same result.
First the Iranian army would conquer a large portion of the Roman Empire. Then the Romans would fight back and recapture their lost territory. Neither empire could decisively defeat the other. They couldn't control each other's territory for long. It means that it was a stalemate on the borders of both empires.
The Persian Emperor Khusrau Pervez tried to break this stalemate in 602 CE. He launched a full-scale offensive on the Roman territory. The bloody war continued for another 26 years. Initially, the Iranians captured the areas from Georgia to Egypt. This war brought the Iranian Empire to its greatest extent. Even important cities like Damascus and Jerusalem were captured by the Iranians.
At one point, the Iranian army even besieged the Roman capital Constantinople. However, the Iranians failed to capture the city. The credit goes to the Walls of Constantinople. Finally, the Roman ruler Heraclius I defeated Khusrau Pervez.
He took back all the lost territories. He also brought back the 'True Cross' from the Iranians to Jerusalem. So it was a stalemate once again .However, this war proved disastrous for both empires. This greatly weakened their power. The lost countless lives and experienced commanders.
The war emptied their treasuries and destabilized both powers. A game of thrones started in Iran. Persian Emperor Khusrau Parvez was assassinated by his son Kavad II. Kavad II also executed 18 of his brothers. He made sure that nobody would challenge his rule.There is also a Hadith about Khusrau Pervez in Sahih Bukhari.
The Prophet of Islam (PBUH) sent a letter to Khusrau Pervez.
He was invited to embrace Islam .But Khusrau Pervez tore the letter. The Messenger of God (PBUH) cursed him that his empire would also be dismembered.
Historian Akbar Najib Abadi has written an important event in his book. He writes that Khusrau Parvez ordered the governor of Yemen to arrest the Prophet (PBUH).Governor Bazan sent 2 men to Medina. They met the Prophet (PBUH) and informed him about the orders. The Messenger of God (PBUH) said that you consider Khusrau Pervez your god. But he was killed by his son the last night. These two messengers returned and told this news to the Governor. At the same time, the news of Khusrau's death reached Yemen from the Persian capital. When the governor heard this, he became a Muslim. So it was the end of Khusrau Pervez.
The Sassanid empire declined rapidly after his murder. At least 11 kings ruled Persia within 5 years. An Iranian general, Shahrbaraz and Khusrau's 2 daughters, Buran Dakht and Arzmi Dakht also ruled. Finally, in 633 CE, Khusrau's grandson Yazdgerd III ascended the throne. He reigned for 20 years as the last ruler of the Sassanid Empire. But he was only a symbolic Emperor.
Muslim historians don't agree on Yazdgerd's age at the time of his coronation. Ibn Qutiba says, he was only 15 years old. Tabari notes that he died at the age of 28.So in Tabari's opinion, Yazdgerd was only 8 years old. That's why the real powers remained in the hands of his courtiers. Palace intrigues were also commonplace .But some Muslim historians say that it was Ardashir who ruled Iran at the time of the Arab invasion. Meanwhile, Turkic tribes from Central Asia and Caucasia were also attacking the Iranian Empire. They had also taken over the Iran-controlled Georgia.
Iran had lost the Gulf coastline all along the Arabian peninsula including Oman and Yemen. These areas had now become part of the Arab Muslim Caliphate. The Roman Empire was also on the brink of destruction.The Roman Empire was barely surviving against all odds. It was at this time that the desert army from Arabia proved fatal for both the great empires.
This Arab desert army was under the command of the Muslim general Khalid ibn al-Walid.But Khalid had to face an Arab kingdom before fighting these empires.2 Arab tribes had migrated from Yemen. They settled on the Iranian and Roman borders of Arabia. The Arabs who settled in Syria and Jordan were called Banu Ghassan .They established the Ghassanid Kingdom. The Ghassanids became a tributary state of the Roman Empire. Similarly, the Yemenis who settled on the west bank of Euphrates River were called Banu Lakhm.
They established Lakhmids kingdom. It was also called al-Manādhirah. Some areas of the Arabian Peninsula were also part of this kingdom. The Lakhmids paid tribute to the Iranians. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids were mostly Christians. Arab caravans often passed through these kingdoms. While en route to Syria and Iraq they used to stay there.
They also used to learn a lot about Christianity and Zoroastrian religions from these areas. They traded during the day and debated at night. They exchanged ancient stories and mythologies during these debates. So the Arabs and these Tribes knew each other very well.
Al-Hira was the capital of the Lakhmids. This city was located on the west bank of the Euphrates River near present-day Kufa. Banu Ghassan's capital was the city of Bosra al-Sham in present-day Syria. Both these kingdom provided soldiers to their Roman and Iranian masters. Mainly, the cavalry.
The Arab cavalry carried out reconnaissance and raiding operations. These two states had become a buffer zone between the Arabs, Rome and Iran. No Arab army could bypass these areas to reach Rome or Iran. They had to fight these 2 Arab states first. Arabs had also fought the battle of Mu'tah in 629 CE.A Romano-Ghassanid army had faced the Arabs in the battle.3 Arab commanders lost their lives in this bloody battle. Finally, Khalid ibn al-Walid successfully retreated and saved the Arab Muslim Army.
The Prophet of Islam (PBUH) gave him the title Saifullah or the Sword of Allah .So some Arabs were blocking the path of the Islamic Caliphate to Rome and Iran. It was necessary to overthrow the 2 states before attacking Rome or Iran.
The Arabs were lucky.
Some actions of the Roman and Iranian rulers had already weakened these states. At the end of the 6th century, trouble arose in the Ghassanid kingdom. The Romans exiled a Ghassanid ruler al-Mandhir III, blaming him of supporting the Iranians. Later his son was also imprisoned. Banu Ghassan rebelled but the Roman army crushed the rebels.
The Ghassanids resented this Roman aggression. There were also some sectarian issues. The Romans and Ghassanids were both Christians but their sects were different. Roman emperors believed that the Christ was both divine and human. But the Ghassanids thought that he had only one divine nature .The Romans wanted to impose their version of Christianity on the Ghassanids. But the Yemeni Arabs opposed it. So the religious dispute grew worse everyday.
You know that communal differences are always so intense .This rift had occurred in this area .Like the Romans, the Iranian rulers also provoked their Yemeni allies, the Lakhmids. Persian emperor, Khasrau Pervez killed Lakhmid King Nu'man III. Then a puppet king was installed in the Lakhmid kingdom.
Iranian commanders and military forces were deployed in the Arab regions. The Yemenis rebelled against the Iranians .They called their fellow Arab tribes from the desert to fight the Iranians. Both sides fought a bloody battle in southern Iraq. The Yemenis defeated the Iranians.
It was called the "Battle of Dhi Qar".But it didn't prove to be a decisive victory. The Yemenis tried to retake their capital al-Hira from the Iranians. But they failed. So their Arab allies returned to the desert.
Though the Iranians retained western Iraq yet most of their Lakhmid subjects now resented them. This was the situation of the buffer zone between Rome, Iran and the Arabs. This buffer zone was now weak. It was no longer a strong buffer zone.
The Arabs in Syria, Jordan and Iraq were now against their Romans and Iranian masters. Now they were waiting for a 3rd power to come to their rescue. They wanted to settle old scores with their Roman and Iranian masters. These disgruntled Yemenite Arabs didn't have to wait for long .A new power soon emerged in the Arabian Peninsula.
This power was the Muslim Caliphate. In 632 CE, the Islamic Caliphate of Arabia began to grow in power. Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique was the first Caliph of Islam. He took him some time to crush the rebellions and consolidate the caliphate. Then then Caliph turned his attention to the Iranian and Roman Empires. He decided to first conquer Iraq, which was controlled by the Iranians. Let's show you a glimpse of the Iraq of that era to understand its significance. Historian Agha Ibrahim Akram writes that Iraq was rich in culture, wealth and abundance of food. It was the most prized province of the Iranian Empire.
To the desert Arabs, it was like a paradise. It was a land flowing with milk and honey. Big rivers like Tigris and Euphrates flowed in it.Because of the fertility and prosperity of Iraq, the Iranians established their capital here. Now the Arab Caliphate wanted to make this region a part of its empire.
The Arab tribes living near Iraq were also eager to attack it. At the very beginning of the Caliphate, an Arab leader visited Medina. He invited the first Caliph to attack Iraq. This Arab leader was Muthna bin Haritha al-Shibani. Muthna bin Haritha belonged to Bani Bakr tribe. This tribe lived near the Lakhmids. Mushana bin Haritha had raided Iraq with a group of cavalry.
He had thoroughly assessed the weaknesses of the Iranian army. He was also well aware of the disputes between Iranians and Lakhmids. He had also collected a lot of booty from Iraq. They brought the booty and intelligence information to the Caliph.
He requested the Caliph to appoint him leader of all the Muslims of his tribe. He promised to fight the Iranians on behalf of the Muslim Caliphate. Hazrat Abu Bakr accepted his request. He issued a letter of authority to the commander. Muthanna bin Haritha returned to his homeland and successfully converted his people to Islam.
Then he raised an army of about 2,000 raiders. According to Tabari's history, he used to attack a part of Kaskar and lower Euphrates in Iraq. Means the western part of Euphrates. But the Caliphs was a little worried. He thought that sending one commander to Iraq wasn't enough. He felt that the time was ripe to attack Iran and Syria. He felt that Muthanna didn't have enough strength for a decisive battle. So he wrote a letter to his most experienced General, Khalid ibn al-Walid. Khalid ibn al-Walid was in Yamama at that time.
Here he had just defeated an Arab claimant to prophethood, Musailma bin Habib Kazab. The Caliph ordered him to move to Syria via Iraq. He also ordered Khalid Bin Waleed to start operations in the region of "Uballa" in Iraq. His final target in Iraq was al-Hira the capital of the Lakhmids kingdom. So Khalid ibn al-Walid started making preparations to leave Yamama for Iraq. But before the departure, a big challenge arose. What was the challenge?
The Caliph had instructed to allow soldiers to return home if they didn't want to join the campaign. Khalid ibn al-Walid informed the Arab soldiers of Caliph's orders. He also allowed them to return if they wished. Most of the soldiers, according to Tabari, returned to their homes. These were the soldiers who had been engaged in battles for several months They had fought battles to suppress rebellions .So they left as soon as they got permission from the Caliph. Only 2,000 soldiers remained behind.
Now Khalid ibn al-Walid faced the challenge of recruiting more men for his army. He immediately wrote to the Caliph and requested reinforcements .But what did the Caliph send him?
Only one man. Who was this one-man army? The Caliph was sitting with his advisers when he received his commander's letter. He read the letter aloud to the audience. Then he ordered a young man, Qaqa'a bin Amr, to go to the aid of Khalid ibn al-Walid.
Qaqa'a bin Amr went home, lifted his weapons and belongings and returned to the Caliph. The attendees were surprised. Someone asked the Caliph that would he send only one man to reinforce Khalid ibn al-Walid. The Caliph said that the army in which there is such a brave man can never be defeated. Then he said good-bye and Qaqa'a bin Amr went to Yamama. Only one man was sent from Medina.
But the Caliph also wrote letters to Muthanna and Mazhur bin Adi. Both of them were directed to join Khalid's army with their soldiers .Khalid ibn al-Walid also wrote letters to both these chiefs. Hurmala and Salman, two other Arab chiefs, were also sent letters.
Khalid ibn al-Walid also launched a recruiting campaign on his own. He recruited 8,000 additional soldiers. Thus the number of his force reached up to 10,000.Then the 4 tribal chiefs also joined him. Each had an army of 2,000 warriors. Now the army of Khalid ibn al-Walid numbered 18,000.Now Khalid decided to attack Uballa, his 1st target.
The city was located a short distance further from the Euphrates-Tigris estuary. It was an important river port. The Iranian trade through the Persian Gulf passed through this city. Chinese and Indian ships also used to visit this port. It was also the shortest water route to the Iranian capital Ctesiphon. Uballa was the trade lifeline of the Iranian Empire.
Khalid ibn- al-Walid was going to cut this lifeline. But first he had to deal with its guard named Hormuz. Hormuz was governor of Uballa. He was among the people of the highest rank in Iranian society. The people of the highest rank used to wear a cap. This cap was worth 100,000 dirhams. It contained jewels and other precious stones. Hormuz also had a 100,000 dirham cap.
He was one of the most powerful people after the emperor himself. This senior most Iranian general was unpopular among Arabs. He was a notorious person. According to Tabari, Arabs said that someone was more hateful and infidel than Hormuz.
Khalid ibn al-Walid wrote Hormuz a lettter.
He gave Hormuz 3 options.
First was to embrace Islam and be safe.2nd option was to pay Jazya and get safety guarantees for himself and his people.3rd option was to get ready for the consequences in case he rejected the first 2 options.He wrote that he had brought a nation that loved death as much as Hormuz loved life.Hormuz opted for the 3rd option and prepared for the battle.So started the victory string that finally destroyed the Roman and Iranian empires.What was Khalid ibn al-Walid's strategy against Hormuz? Which tactics panicked Hormuz?
We will show you the full detail of this battle with references and maps. You will see all this in the next part of the Great General and Battle of the History.
0 تبصرے